Early American Aircraft Development and World War I

While human warfare dates back to at least the 15th Century when the Battle of Megiddo  (15th century BC) was fought between Egyptian forces and a group of Canaanite vassal states led by the king of  Kadesh, air combat is barely more than a century old.  The Wright brothers made the first flight in history in 1903 and in 1911 aircraft were first used for warfare by Italy using planes to bomb Libyan tribesmen.  In World War I, aerial warfare would play a major for both sides with dogfights first taking place in 1914 and by 1918 the British and German were making widespread use of bombers to attacking each others cities. By the end of World War I, more than 65,000 airplanes had been built. The Wright Brothers at Kitty Hawk On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright piloted first powered airplane flights in history over the windy beaches of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.  The Wright brothers made four flights that day; with Orville taking the first flight that lasted a mere twelve seconds and traversed 120 feet.  Wilbur piloted the longest flight which covered 852 feet and lasted 59 seconds.  They choose Kitty Hawk due to the constant winds of the Outer Banks that helped to lift their aircraft off the ground. Aeronautical Division Created On August 1, 1907, the United States established the Aeronautical Division of the Office of the Chief Signal Caller.  This group was placed in â€Å"charge of all matters pertaining to military ballooning, air machines, and all kindred subjects.† The  Wright brothers  made the initial test flights in August 1908 of what they hoped would become the Armys first airplane, the Wright Flyer. This had been built to military specifications.  In order to be awarded a military contract for their aircraft, the Wright brothers had to prove that their planes were able to carry passengers. First Military Casualty   On September 8 and 10, 1908, Orville conducted exhibition flights and carried two different Army officers for a plane ride.  On September 17th Orville made his third flight carrying Lieutenant Thomas E. Selfridge, who became the very first U.S. military personnel to be a casualty from an airplane crash. In front of a crowd of 2,000 spectators, Lt. Selfridge was flying with Orville Wright when the right propeller broke causing the craft to lose thrust and go into a nosedive. Orville turned off the engine and was able to an altitude of about 75 feet, but the Flyer still hit the ground nose-first. Both Orville and Selfridge were thrown forward with Selfridge striking a wooden upright of the framework causing a fractured skull which led to his death a few hours later. In addition, Orville suffered several severe injuries which included a broken left thigh, several broken ribs, and a damaged hip. Orville spent seven weeks in a hospital recuperating. While Wright was wearing a cap, Selfridge was not wearing any headgear but had Selfridge had been wearing any type of helmet, he more than likely would have survived the crash. Due to Selfridges death, the U.S. Army required their early pilots to wear heavy headgear which was reminiscent of football helmets from that era. On August 2, 1909, the Army chose a revamped Wright Flyer which had undergone much more testing as the first powered fixed-wing aircraft.  On May 26, 1909, Lieutenants Frank P. Lahm and Benjamin D. Foulois had become the first U.S. serviceman to qualify as Army pilots.   Aero Squadron Formed The 1st Aero Squadron, also known as the 1st Reconnaissance Squadron, was formed on March 5, 1913, and it remains as America’s oldest flying unit.  President William Taft ordered the unit organized due to increasing tensions between the U.S. and Mexico.  At its’ origin, the 1st Squadron had 9 airplanes with 6 pilots and approximately 50 enlisted men. On March 19, 1916, General John J. Pershing ordered the 1st Aero Squadron to report to Mexico and therefore the first U.S. aviation unit to participate in military action.  On April 7, 1916, Lt. Foulois became the very first American pilot to be captured even though he was only held for a day. Their experience in Mexico taught both the Army and the U.S. Government a very valuable lesson. The Squadron’s main weakness was that it had too few airplanes to properly conduct a military operation.  World War I was teaching the importance of each squadron having 36 total airplanes: 12 operational, 12 for replacements, and 12 more in reserve of 12. The 1st Aero Squadron consisted of only 8 airplanes with minimal spare parts. In April 1916 with only 2 airplanes in the flyable condition in the 1st Aero Squadron, the Army requested a $500,000 appropriation from Congress to purchase 12 new airplanes – the Curtiss R-2’s that were equipped with Lewis guns, automatic cameras, bombs, and radios After much delay, the Army did receive 12 Curtiss R-2s but they were practical for the Mexican climate and required alterations which took until August 22, 1916, to get 6 planes into the air. As a result of their mission, the 1st Squadron was able to General Pershing with the first aerial review conducted by a U.S. air unit. US Aircraft in World War I When the United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, the countries aircraft industry was mediocre in comparison to Great Britain, Germany, and France, each of which had been involved in the war from the onset and had learned firsthand about the strengths and weaknesses of combat-ready aircraft.  This was true even though there had been more than ample funding provided by the U.S. Congress around the start of the war.   On July 18, 1914, the U.S. Congress replaced the Aeronautical Division with the Aviation Section of the Signal Corps.  In 1918, the Aviation Section then became the  Army Air Service.  It would not be until September 18, 1947, that the United States Air Force was formed as a separate branch of the U.S. military  under the National Security Act of  1947. Although the U.S. never reached the same degree of aviation production experienced by their European counter-parts countries during World War I, starting in 1920 numerous changes were made that resulted in the Air Force becoming a major military organization in time to help the United States prevail in World War II.

Enron s Ceo Jeff Skilling Essay - 1025 Words

Enron executives Ken Lay and Jeffrey Skilling were found guilty of fraud and conspiracy. Andrew Fastow, Enron’s CFO, cut a deal in a plea-bargain in which he testified against his former bosses. The three of them have been called sociopaths. For instance, when Skilling took the stand he almost seemed humble, and assured his innocence, claiming that Enron didn’t do anything wrong. When Skilling was hired, the staff that he motivated as being innovative and independent, used accounting loopholes and poor financial reportings to hide billions of dollars in debt from failed deals and projects. Enron looks like the perfect illustration of the bad barrel bad apple disease. Enron’s CEO Jeff Skilling, pursued a culture that would push through the limits, â€Å"Do it right, do it now and do it better.† he used to say. Skilling encouraged employers to be independent and innovative. This gave rise to the pursuit of excellence, as executives worked to develop ways of preserving Enron’s success, when they unaware they were developing its downfall. Enron’s activities and decisions illustrate a range of characteristics discussed throughout the class, as being involved in institutional sociopathy. Lack of Empathy, for instance, which means the unwillingness of inability to recognize with the feelings and needs of others. Skilling embodies this characteristics, because he resigned his position when Enron, a company that he claimed he loved and cared for so much, was going bankrupt. Lack ofShow MoreRelatedThe Ethics Of The Enron Collapse Of Enron1366 Words   |  6 PagesCulture of Enron Before Enron bankruptcy it was one of America’s most powerful and successful energy companies. The company thrived and pushed to be number one no matter the circumstance, in this company’s case if it meant doing it illegally. 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Physics for Future Presidents Notes-Final Exam Free Essays

Energy: the ability to do work. Work= force x displacement. Power=energy/time Power is measured in watts or horsepower. We will write a custom essay sample on Physics for Future Presidents Notes-Final Exam or any similar topic only for you Order Now Joules/sec=watts 1hp=746w=1kw Basal metabolic rate 2000kcal/day= 100w Batteries store energy in chemical form. They release energy by pumping electrons’ through wires from the minus pole to the plus pole. Devices inbetween convert this energy to another form, Efficieny- e. motor=85%, combustion= 20% Hydrogen is not a source of energy but a means of transportation Types of energy: kinetic e(in joules)= . 5mv^2. Solar energy- 1gw per km^2 Solar energy can be turned into electricity through solar cells 15%=cheap, 40% efficiency=expensive. Caloric theory of heat=caloric fluid flows from hot object to cold. Heat engine= device to turn heat energy into useful work: heat comes from something hot but only some goes to useful work. Satellites=free fall. Ionizing radiation=energy in the form of waves or paricle Beta radiation-just an electron, wont go through skin but really bad inside you alpha- he2+ nucleus-wont go through skin but bad once inside. Comes from radioactive particles like lead 210 or iodine. amma- high energy photon, may go through you. neutrineos-noninteracting, come from fusion, cosmic rays-very powerful. Come from supernovas. Moves at speed of light moderator-slows neutrons b/c they are absorbed better when slow ciritical mass needed for nuclear bomb-5kg, resistence of wire depends on length, longer=more resistance. Thickness-thinner=bigger resistance, material. Escape velocity=ve locity required on the surface to completely leave a planet Rcket-goes nowhere near escape velocity – drag from atmosphere is bad, goes slower but carries fuel Tin Celsius = Tin Fahrenheit ? 2 ? 5 9 Tin Fahrenheit = Tin Celsius ? 9 + 32 . 5 Nuclear energy Source of energy of energy in plants=radioactive particles such as uranium and plutonium. A chain reaction is the doubling law that takes you from small numbers to high numbers in a small number of generations. Aromic bombs are based on chain reactions of u-235 or pu-239. Plutonium is manufactured in nuclear reactors. Difficult bomb design (implosion). Hydrogen bomb=fission ignites secondary reaction that contains two isotopes of hydrogen-most dangerous part of residual radioactivity. Nuclear reactors are based the chain reaction but normally work with neutron multiplication of 1 o reaction doesn’t grow. Moderators slow neutrons so they are more likely to attract to nucleus. If moderator is lost the chain reaction stops. If it runs away and c. r. begins to grow exponentially, the slowness of the neutrons limits the size of the explosion. Since a c. r. depends on slow neutronsa cr that depends on slow neutrons cannot give rise to a nuclear explosion so therefore a reactor cannot blow up like a bomb b/c when temp increases, aroms are moving too fast for the neutrons to hit them so the c. stops. It will blow up like tnt, but 1 mil times smaller than a bomb. N reactor= device in which sustained c. r. takes place. Neutrons hit nucleus to cause another fusion. Power doesn’t grow, is constant. Power comes out in the form of hear. Nuclear reactors use moderators- a chemical mixed with fuel that slows down the neutrons. Isotopes are different types of atoms ( nuclides) of the same chemical element, each having a different number of neutrons. Power-rate of energy release. Cookies=high energy. Tnt=high power. I kg h=1 gal gas. Heat energy (or just heat) is a form of energy which transfers among particles in a substance (or system) by means of kinetic energy of those particle. Nuclear energy= energy stored between the forces between parts of atomic nucleus. Energy=measured in calories or joules. I watt-I joule/sec. most useful kinds of energy=chemical and potential. One calor is the enrgy it takes to raise one kg of water by one degree Celsius. 4k joules=calories. Solar cells- crystals that convert sunlight directly into electricity. K energy depends on sq of v. double speed=kinetic energy increased by factor of 4.. emp is a measure of hidden kinetic energy. Disorider= entropy. Double abs temp=double pressure. Heat engine= any engine that runs by turning heat into mechanic motion. Laws: 0-objects in contact tend to reach same temp. 1- energy is conserved. 2-you can’t extract heat energy w/o temp difference- tend towards same temp 3-nothng can reach temp of abs 0. Satellite in low earth orbit=5 mi/sec . high sat=slow. Geosynchrous sat= sat that orbites in 24 hours. . blackhole=escape velocity = faster than speed of light. Big mass or lots packed into small radius . rockets fly by pushing burned fuel down. /c rocket weighs so much more fuel, the amount of velocity gained by rocket is much less than the fuel velocity so very inefficient. Gravity=attraction between two masses. Radioactivity= explosion of nucleus atom. Radiation=pieces thrown out in explosion.. chernyobyl-vessel explosded in Ukraine, radiation went all the way to stockhom. Don’t know if deaths were from radiation or regular cancer. Firefighters died from radiation45 rem receved average.. 25 rem=1% cancer chance. The hydrogen economy is a proposed system of delivering energy using hydrogen. Thinks methane is the way since ch4. he term â€Å"hydrogen economy† describes an envisioned large-scale scheme of delivering energy by means of hydrogen, particularly for â€Å"motive power† (personal cars, buses, planes, ships, etc. ). This is attractive for several reasons, among them the clean way in which hydrogen burns (it only leaves water as a residue), its high energy per weight, and the fact that fuel cells can convert hydrogen’s energy directly into electricity that subsequently powers an electric motor, with a combined efficiency exceeding that of ordinary combustion engines. Around 4:00 am on the morning of March 28, 1979, water pumps in the non-nuclear section of Three Mile Islands’ Unit 2 nuclear power plant stopped working. This prevented the steam generators from removing heat from the plant and initiated an automatic shutdown of the reactor. The possiblity that the melting of fuel rods could result in a release of radioactivity to the surroundings was of great concern. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission was alerted at 8:00 am and the White House was alerted at 9:15 am. By 11:00 am, all non-essential personnel were evacuated from the facility. The remaining personnel worked to bring the situation under control over the next several days. According to the U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, this accident, â€Å"was the most serious in U. S. com- mercial power plant operating history, even though it led to no deaths or injuries to plant workers or members of the nearby community. But it brought sweeping changes involving emergency response plan- ning, reactor operator training, human factors engineering, radiation protection, and many other areas of nuclear power plant operations. † – melted cre How to cite Physics for Future Presidents Notes-Final Exam, Essay examples

Sample on Network Tecnologies & Optics Communications

Questions: 1. Discuss the role of networks within different organizations and the resource implications of networks2. Discuss the different distributed computing approaches of peer-to-peer and client-server networks3. Explain the functions of client and server computers on a network and give at least one example of interactions between a client and server computer4. Describe the advantages of client-server approaches particularly over centralized services1. Draw and describe basic network topologies and define basic network components2. Discuss role of software and hardware3. Discuss factors influencing choice of networks stating advantages and disadvantages that arise from different topologies4. Determine a suitable network for a given site1. Explain different connection materials including their specifications and list the criteria you would use to choose such materials2. Describe basic signaling methods and their characteristics3. Explain the role of the network interface card and carry-out selection, installation and configuration of a network interface card using NOS tools4. Identify how the relevant parameters and protocols are set5. Discuss factors that affect the performance of network interface cards6. Determine a cabling and hardware connection configuration for a given site1. present the OSI layered model2. Explain the role of drivers in a network, discussing their relationship to the NOS and OSI model3. Discuss how drivers are selected and implemented for various network components; install NIC driver and demonstrate how to remove and update4. Explain the detailed operation of different IEEE 802.N network configurations5. Refer the 802 protocols to the existing OSI layers6. Relate how architecture influences access and control of the network and draw out merits of different architectures7. Describe scenarios where one architecture might be favored over another1. Discuss the role of packets and how they are built up from their various components, giving an exam ple where data packets are transmitted through different layers of the OSI model2. Discuss the role of protocols at different layers of the OSI model, describing the function of specific protocols3. Explain examples of transmission between different network layers. Answers: Introduction As an IT Consultant, the purpose of this proposal is to present a detail report on the basic networking requirements for the given case study. The new requirements provided by the import export organization are analyzed and accordingly suggestions and solutions are proposed. The report will cover a detail justification of the selected networking topology and other networking components, connection materials and network software and hardware components. Additionally, the proposal meets the criteria for providing the receptionists, order processing and other management staff access to the centralized customer database. Alongside to that, the company Intranet should be accessible from all authorized employees located both in the office as well as in the ware house within ten miles distance (Li, 2014). A detail insight to the role of the network including diagrams, hardware configuration issues and other networking requirement is discussed along with the issues regarding network architec ture and its influence on the overall performance of the organization. Discussion of the role of Networks within the dissimilar organizations and the resources suggestion of networks The function of networks in different organizations can be described as below: Increase employees productivity Reduce equipment costs Ease of access to resources Increase capacity for storage Reduce costs of communication Manage resources and software centrally. Increase rate of installation of software on workstations. Share data or resource with different users. The resource implications of networks involve various factors like dependence of hardware and software. Other than this is the technology for data transmission like routing and switching of the networks. 2. Investigation of Basic Hardware Components and the Role of the Networking Operating System (NOS) Software Drawing and Description of the basic Network Topologies Network Topology The network topology is that topology to understand the systems of any computer network. It describes the way how the computers are linked with one another. The basic network topologies are: Ring, Star, Bus and Mesh topologies. Ring Topology: Each of the nodes is connected to each other in the form of a circle; none of the nodes are opened. The packets are sent around the ring to reach its final destination. It is also known as token ring topology, as it accesses to token as well as transmits the packets. Star Topology: Basically, this type of topology is used in home or office network. The nodes are connected to each other with a central controller that is called hub. If there is any breakdown in the cable, there it cannot hamper the entire system. Bus Topology: It is a good resolution over the ring and bus topologies based on the function that it allows high rate of transmission of data. Mesh Topology: In this network, each of the nodes has no capacity of routing. Therefore, the communication between two nodes is fast. Each of the nodes is connected to one another that allow most broadcast to be disrupted, as any one of its connections fail. There are two types of basic network components that are used to manage the network system. The two components are Hardware components as well as Software components. In the hardware components, it contains network router, switches as well as bridges. The software components are the network operating system. The role of Software and Hardware Network hardware is the components of a system of network that transmits the data as well as facilitates the functions of a computer network. Network software consists of protocols as well as programs to connect the computers for the purpose of sharing the data. It mainly increases the sharing of information. Factors that Influencing choice of networks advantages and disadvantages over topologies The factors are the following of Ring topologies are: It manages the connectivity between the computers at the time when the network server does not work It is a network that access to token as well as the chance to transmit This network is slower than the Ethernet network The interruption of communication is directly virtual to the nodes in the network, and it increases the delay in communication The factors of star topology are: It has least amount of line cost as because only n-lines are needed to connect the n number of nodes Its formatting is simple so it is very easy to expand on this topology One of its disadvantages is that, it is dependent on its hub as well as the entire system of the network depends on the central controller The factors of bus topology are: It is a temporary network that is easy to implement as well as extend It does not manage better with a traffic rate of heavy, therefore it is difficult to administer as well as troubleshoot The factors of Mesh topology are: Each of its nodes have no routing capacity, thus he communication between two nodes is fast It requires more cable than the topologies of LAN, therefore it has problematical operations Determination of suitable network Basically, star network is used for office. This network consists of a central controller that is called hub that can transmit the messages. In this network, every computer work station is connected to the central node. The data are throughout the hub before going to its destination files. The hub is used to control the functions of the network. Relation of architecture influences access and control of the network and draw out merits of different architectures The network architecture influences the cost as well as requirements of adopting new applications. The architecture that enables the network providers to control the applications and the content on their network give the power to shape the information (Schwartz and Stone, 2013). The system of access control refers to the computer based as well as electronic access system. The architecture-related influences both access and control of the network. The architecture is used to access the network in order to provide connecting devices to the network as well as control those devices that are allowed to communicate on the network. The merits of different architectures are (Katugampola et al. 2014): Client server architecture: All the files are stored in the same place, thus the management of the files is easy. The changes within the server are easily made based on upgrading the server. Peer-to-peer architecture: This architecture does not have any central computer server. In this network architecture, each of the workstations has equivalent capabilities as well as responsibilities. This network is simpler than client-server (Rastgar and Shahrokhian, 2014). Description of the Scenario where one architecture might be favored over another The scenario in which architecture is favored over another is For a larger business, with multiple WAN links, add WAN routers. Most of the large business companies work in multiple locations to expand their networks worldwide. Therefore, maintenance of huge networks is the most important parameter (KiranRana and Setia, 2015). Using the internet, the organizations can form a WAN with the shared users irrespective of their geographical locations. It is assumed that a company X is connected with its other branches through the WAN links. It is possible with the connection of single Internet Service Provider, is the usual scenario. When the LAN accesses to the WAN, then the security over the transactions as well as protection of the data becomes a problem as there is a chance of hacking the data and information. It can lead to failure of the network. The link of dual WAN connects the networks for the connection of dual ISP. The purpose of Dual WAN is effective in the current scenario (Koo dziejczyk and Ogiela, 2012). Task 1 Laboratory 1: Network Components 1. Explanation of Different Network Components Twisted-pair cable: Brief description: Twisted-pair cable is simplest form of transmission medium used in telecommunications. Twisted pair cables are constructed with two or more electronic wires that are arranged in a spiral form. To be more specific, two copper wires are twisted where each of them has a plastic or metallic insulation. Functionality: twisted pair cables can support both analog and digital transmission. Shielded cables are mainly used to protect the electronic signals from interference. Twisted pairs that have metal insulation are generally used for short distance data transmission. The speed and performance of the wire is directly proportional to the number of twists in the wire. STP with maximum number of twists can significantly reduce electromagnetic interference, crosstalk and noise in the transmission medium while transmitting either analog or digital signals. It is the least expensive type of data transmission and communication medium and is used mostly by older telephone service providers and Local Area Networks or LANs. Coaxial cable: Brief description: coaxial cables are a common medium used in data communication and transmission. This type of cable consists of a wire or a physical channel that is guided or surrounded by layers of insulation. The inner conductor is surrounded by a braided conductor. The outer layer is a shield that protects the signals from electromagnetic interference. The braided or grounded layer serving as a line has the sheath or jacket for gaining maximum efficiency in transmitting information while carrying lower frequency signals. Functionality: Coaxial cables are more expensive medium than twisted pair cables but they can carry more amount of information with fewer amounts of interferences. Other usages of coaxial cables include LANs or Local Area Networks such as Ethernets; also telephone companies use coaxial cables to carry telephone signals to users telephone poles. Fiber-optic cable: Brief description: Fiber optic or optical fiber cables are typically the most popular and widely used mode of data transmission of modern days. An optical fiber cable consists of multiple fiber optics each with protective plastic coating. More specifically, fiber optic cables have two main layers that are core and cladding. The cladding is coated with protective polyimide. Several layers of protective sheath are added to the fibers depending upon the environment where it will be deployed (Ahmad et al. 2014). Functionality: the optical fiber can carry light. Fiber optics are known mostly for long distance high speed data communication. Modern day fiber optics can have the capacity to carry and transmit data over 50 kilometers or more having bandwidth of about 1 terabyte per second. One of the prominent examples of optical fiber usage is the Internet. Using fiber optic cables data is digitally transmitted over network instead of analogically. Although it costs more than twisted pair or coaxial cables, it much less susceptible to signal interference, can carry significantly huge data in less time and over much longer distances (Beko and Dinis, 2014). Modem: Brief description: A modem or modulator demodulator is a type of hardware device used in computer networking to transmit data over twisted pair or fiber optic cable lines. The term modulator demodulator comes from its ability to transform analog signals into digital signals and vice versa. Computers generally understand information represented in a digital form whereas the transmission mediums carry data in the form of analog waves or frequency. Modems are required as a hardware interface to convert these signals to computer readable form (Bhaskar and Mallick, 2015). Functionality: Modem is used to send and receive data and information between computers connected over telephone lines by transforming digital data into analog signals and transmitting over telephone cable networks. It uses the asynchronous method of transmission where the data are sent in the form of packets (Bhaskar and Mallick, 2015). The receiver modem reassembles the packets and converts it back to its digital form so that the computer can understand. Dial-up modems that were widely used before used to dial up the phone number to establish a communication to connect to the other modem over the Internet. Switch: Brief description: network switches are a type of networking hardware devices that can connect multiple computers over a Local Area Network or Ethernet. Switch can take data from multiple input ports, then by using packet switching it channels the packets to the intended output port and forwards the data to its destination device (Buerschaper, 2014). Functionality: The fundamental functionality of a network switch is to take the information from any input ports connected to it and forward the data packets to the desired destination. Nowadays a number of medium and large size LANs implements single and multilayered switched networks. Additional functions of a switch include verifying the data packets and their header addresses and intelligent routing (Burnstock, 2013). The reason it is called intelligent is because network switches can prevent collision by establishing dedicated link between source and destination ports. 2. Network Interface Card Description of basic signaling methods and their characteristics In telecommunications, the term signaling refers to exchange of data and information between a sender and a receiver over a communication channel in a form of analog signal. The basic forms of signaling can be classified into several groups. In-band signaling: in-band signaling implies exchange of information using the same channel as that of the telephone call. More accurately, the data and control signals are carried over the same line or channel. Out-of-band signaling: More accurately, out-band signaling uses separate channel frequencies for transmitting control signals and data. For instance, ISDN uses its channel D and B for sending control signals and data signals respectively. Common-channel signaling: These type of signaling uses a separate channel for transmitting signaling information for multiple connections. The reason it is called as common channel is all these bearer channels or connection uses the same channel for transmitting signaling information while each has their own separate channel for transmission of data or voice. Associated signaling: Associated signaling uses the signaling technique in which the same network elements help to transmit the information. More specifically, all the signaling and data channels have common network components (Cheong et al. 2014). Channel-associated signaling provides an individual line to transmit signaling information dedicated for every connection or bearer channel. The role of the network interface card Installation procedure of NIC: It is always recommended to unplug the computer before installing NIC to prevent electronic mishaps. The steps which lead to installation of NIC are described below. Open the computer case and locate the PCI or Peripheral Component Interconnect. The PCI slot has to be cleared of the metal plate (Bajwa, Lee and Bordbar, 2012). Take out the NIC card from its anti-static bag and place it onto the PCI slot. It has to be done keeping right alignments with the notches. Give a slight press so that the NIC fits into the PCI slot. Secure the card by screws to hold it in. Close the computer case and turn the power back on. The next steps are to configure the PCs network from Control Panel and check the internet connection (Cheong et al. 2014). Selection and configuration of NIC: The identification and configuration of NIC involves the following steps: Network settings- Local settings - NIC configuration. Network agent uses separate NIC for monitoring and managing the network. Monitor network traffic: After identifying the NIC model, the correct Driver for NIC is located. The NIC supported drivers usually reside in the generic kernel. Under the Monitoring section of network settings, check the box with use this NIC to monitor traffic (Clear, 2014). Change MAC address: Each MAC address uses one IP address. To change the MAC address, specific commands can be run on the DOS prompt to view the address or select override MAC address from the option menu and enter the MAC address. Configuring network card using command prompt displays information such as the loopback address, the Ethernet interfaces. If these are not displayed properly then the NIC is not configured correctly to be able to connect over a network (Ahmad et al. 2014). Identification of the way of relevant parameters and protocols are set The Network Administration tool is used to set various parameters as well as protocols of the network interface configuration files. The configurations parameters are set as shown below (Cui, 2015): BONDING_OPTS= It sets the configuration of its parameters for the device related to bonding. These parameters are identical as well as the module parameters are described in bonding Module Directives. BOOTPROTO= Here the protocol is one of the following: None- none of the boot protocol is used Boot up-the protocol BOOTP is used Dhcp-the DHCP is used Factors that affected performance of Networks Interface Cards (NIC) The following factors have significant impacts on the level of performance of the NIC: Operating System: Usually the OSs that have light weighted device driver give better performance with regards to network cards (Wong, Yin and Lee, 2011). Bus Speed: the Bus Speed is dependent on the ISA slot or the PCI slot. Computers having PCI slots perform better because of better speed compared to the others. Memory space: naturally NIC performs better in the environments where there is the presence of larger memory space in the computers CPU (Yu and Lin, 2012). Access technique: computers use different methods to access memory. For example DMA or Dynamic Memory Allocation gives better results with regards to NIC performance than that of Input/output methods. Discussion of how drivers are implemented for various network components The steps of removing the NIC driver: On the server of CCBoot, the super client is enabled for a PC (PC101) Diskless boot PC101 The CCBootClient program is run In the CCBOOTClient dialog box, the button NICPnP is clicked In the pop up CCBOOTPnP dialog box, the Install Known NIC button is clicked. In the pop up NIC Drivers dialog box, the NVIDIAnForce Networking Controller check box is unchecked and then OK button is clicked Then PC101 is shutdown At last, on the CCBoot server, the supper client is diabled The steps to update the NIC driver: Click start from the taskbar and in the popup menu click Control Panel Double click System from the listed menu items In the dialog box, click on the tab labeled Hardware in the page that appears click Device Manager In the device manager dialog box that appears install the drivers Click on the driver mane to update The driver is automatically updated Determination a cabling and hardware connection configuration for a given site Fiber-optic cable: Fiber optic cables are typically the most popular and widely used mode of data transmission of modern days. The optical fiber can carry light. Fiber optics is known mostly for long distance high speed data communication (Xie and Zhao, 2014). Modern day fiber optics can have the capacity to carry and transmit data over 50 kilometers or more having bandwidth of about 1 terabyte per second. One of the prominent examples of optical fiber usage is the Internet. Using fiber optic cables data is digitally transmitted over network instead of analogically (Dalle, 2015). BNC connector: The hardware connection configuration used in the given scenario is BNC connector. This type of connector is used in network of Token ring. The user can connect to the computer as well as relay traffic from one computer to other computer and connect to a FTP network to hide the IP address (Esbensen, Geladi and Larsen, 2014). Task 2 Laboratory 2: Peer to Peer Networks 2. Discussion of the various distributed computing approaches of client-server networks and peer-to-peer approaches In respect of P2P (peer-to-peer) networks, distributed computing means the services of network will be distributed among the nodes in the network. In this, every node will have play an equal role as there will be no elements in the centre. One such architecture of P2P can be given as early design of internet which is ARPANET. However, according to client-server networks distributed computing have an important role to play as it will need a centralized system. This model enables a system to expand its abilities by utilizing the resources being shared by other hosts. Distributed computing can allocate huge amount of resources to fewer computers. The more load is reduced from the clients the more it will be simpler for clients to operate in this model. 3. Explanation of the functions of client-server computers on a network The computer server on a network shares resources with clients. An immediate request process starts with the demand for services by the clients. Whereas, the client computers do not share any resources but in turn sends request to the server host for function or service. The client and server communicate in a request-response pattern: the client sends a request and the server responds to the request. An example of such interaction can be given as the mail systems in which the client requests for a particular mail service like Gmail or Yahoo and the server responds by providing the web page of that mail service. 4. Description of the advantages of client-server approaches in centralized services The advantages should be described as follows: Security of data Data is being stored on servers which provide better security than client. Accessibility The resources or data can be accessed or changed by clients only with prior permissions of the servers. Data backup Provides with ease to update data anytime. Functionality It can provide function or services to various clients with different capabilities at the same time. Maintenance The servers can be repaired, upgraded or relocated without affecting the clients. Flexibility New technology can be easily implemented and the servers can be remotely accessed irrespective of platforms. User accounts It provides with an ease to add or remove clients without affecting the network. Performance This approach can increase performance without much hassle as the client side need not to be disturbed for any modifications. Task 3 Laboratory 3: Open System Interconnection Model 1. Presentation of OSI Layered Model The layers in OSI model is described with the help of diagrams as below (Xie and Zhao, 2014): Physical Layer One of the significant elements of the physical layer is to move information as electromagnetic flags over a transmission medium. It is in charge of developments of individual bits from one bounce (Node) to next. Both information and the signs can be either simple or advanced (Esmail and Fathallah, 2015). Transmission media work by leading vitality along a physical way which can be wired or wireless. Data Link Layer Data Link Layer is in charge of moving casings starting with one bounce Hop (Node) then onto the next. It is mindful to sort out bits into casings; to give Hop-to-Hop conveyance. It is concerned with physical tending to control the flow, control the error and access co Network Layer The Network layer is in charge of the conveyance of individual bundles from the source host to the destination host. This layer is concerned with intelligent tending to implies IP tending to and directing means the transmission of information in the system from source to destination. It is also responsible for handling of errors, controlling congestion, sequencing of packets and creating internetworks (Fathallah and Esmail, 2015). Transport Layer This layer has the responsibility of delivering message from on to other process. It also concerns recovery of error from beginning to end of transmission. It is also responsible for control of flow and transfer of complete data. Session Layer This layer is responsible for controlling dialog and synchronization. This layer deals with management and termination of connections between applications. It helps to deal and coordinate session and connection. Presentation Layer This layer helps in conversion, compression and encryption. It helps to transform data into the form that is acceptable by the application layer. It provides freedom from differences in the representation of data (Gao, An and Zhu, 2014). It helps in formatting and encryption of data to be sent over the network. Application Layer This layer provides services to the users. This layer consists of everything that is specific to applications. It supports the processes of end-users. There exist two applications Telnet and FTP that is specific only to this layer. 2. Role of data packets and Transmission of OSI model A Data packet can be defined as that unit of data built into a single package to transmit over a given path of network. The significant role played by the data packets is the broadcast of data in Internet Protocol (IP) through which the user can navigate the web or other networks (Pour Ahmadi, 2014). A Data packet is built up of various components rather than only containing raw data. The components of this are headers which contains specific types of metadata in addition to information of routing means the path in the network. As for example, an IP data packet contains headers having IPs of source and destination. It may also contain a trailer that helps to improve the transmission of data. The data packet transmission in the OSI model can be explained by taking a simple example for accessing the web page of a renowned search provider Google as below (Kuhfittig, 2013): Physical Layer The user inputs the address of Google and then this layer starts to transmit the request to next layer by any physical media wired or wireless. Data Link Layer In this layer the data means address of the web page in the form of bits is transformed into frames and adds headers to the data packet. Network Layer - In this layer, the data packet is being logically addressed means the IP of the source is embedded into the header of the data packet. Transport Layer This layer then sends the received data packet to the next layer for processing of the data. Session Layer This layer then opens up ports for transmission and synchronizes the data packet. Presentation Layer This layer then encrypts the data along with the destination IP and transmits to the next layer in the model. Application Layer This layer finally transmits the data packet containing the source IP and destination IP along with routing information to the user for getting the web page of Google in the system (Politi, Anagnostopoulos and Stavdas, 2012). 3. Role of different layers protocol OSI protocols can be defined as set of principles to facilitate the exchange of information between the different layers of the model. The role of protocols at different layers of the OSI model can be discussed as follows (Kwon, Kim and Lee, 2011): Physical Layer In this the protocols helps to deal with the hardware of the networks. Data Link Layer The protocols in this layer compiles and transforms the received data into frames. Network Layer in this device like routers and switches are used and the protocols help to transmit data between nodes thus facilitating real time processes. Transport Layer It uses the most important protocols to transmit data from source to destination node. Session Layer The protocols helps to create and terminate connection for transmission of data. Presentation Layer This layers protocol are involved in the encryption and decryption of data. Application Layer The protocols ensure interaction of the users with the applications. Some of the specific protocols and their functions can be discussed as below (Li, 2014): DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) It is a protocol of physical layer used for the purpose of understanding on how the network of telecommunications connects with each other. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) This protocol in data link layer is used for resolution of addresses in network layer into addresses of link layer. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) This protocol provides the network layer with a checksum for protection of the headers of data packets. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) This provides the transport layer with reliability for data transmissions. PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol) This protocol of session layer acts as tunnel to connect user and application processes. SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) It is a protocol of presentation layer that provides the users to run services that are secure on specific applications. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) This protocol for application layer provides the user with reliability to send or retrieve all types of files (Pardeshi and Mungray, 2014). 4. Explanation of transmission between different network layers The various examples of transmission in different layers can be explained in the following manner (Mathew, 2015): Access a web page If a user wants to access a web page then a request process is initiated in the Physical Layer and data is transferred to Data Link Layer. In which hardware address encapsulation is done and transmitted to Network Layer for network encapsulation. After that Transport Layer encapsulates the destination port and Session Layer manages opening and closing of connections. The Presentation Layer performs compression and sequencing of data. And finally, the Application Layer provides user for interaction with the network. Connection to a database in remote location The user requests for a database connection and retrieval of data from the network moves via the Physical Layer with request parameters as bits of information. Then the Data Link Layer transforms the data into frames and encapsulates the hardware information of the client (Meyer et al. 2012). Next is the Network Layer, in which the network address of client is attached with the requests data and transmitted to Transport Layer. This layer invokes the information of source and destination addresses into the packet and sends to Session Layer to establish a connection with the destination host. Now the Presentation Layer compresses the retrieved data, provides it to Application Layer for user interaction with the network, and fulfils the requirements of the user of the system. 5. Explanation of the relationship of drivers to the OSI model NIC provides some of the operations to the second layer of the model of OSI. The interface of NIC is a device of physical layer and the physical address that is referred as MAC address of the drivers to control the NIC that is located at the data link layers MAC sub layer (Gao, An and Zhu, 2014). In an Ethernet, the NIC attached the same segment receives the frames to determine the MAC address. The frames that match with the local address of NIC are forwarded to the OSI model to the next layer to process by the protocol of network layer (Wong, Yin and Lee, 2011). 6. Explanation of detailed operation of different IEEE 802.N network configurations IEEE 802.2 (Logic Link Control) This can be defined as paradigm for the sub layer of the upper Data Link Layer and also called as Logic Link Control layer. Generally, it is concerned with the management of traffic over the physical network (Jaumard and Hoang, 2012). It is responsible to perform operations like error and flow control in the network. IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) This is a standard adapted by Ethernet for operations and it is the paradigm for CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) which includes standards of both the MAC and Physical Layer (Wilson et al. 2014). The term CSMA/CD is that which is used by Ethernet to manage access to the medium of the network like network cable. In the event that there is no information, any node may endeavor to transmit, if the nodes realize a collision, both quit transmitting and hold up an arbitrary measure of time before retransmitting the information (Vakulya, Tuza and Simon, 2015). IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) The token is a special frame which is intended to travel out from node to node around the ring. Every node on the system checks the token for expected information and acknowledges the information and transmits another token. If the information is not for that node it retransmits to the next node (Jesi, Montresor and Babaoglu, 2012). IEEE 802.11 (Wireless Network Standards) The various standards use different frequency for network connection and have limited speeds in rates of data transfer. The connections through Wireless LANs mainly use CSMA/CA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance for minimization of collisions in the network thus resulting into fewer requirements for retransmission of data (Jiahu Qin and Changbin Yu, 2013). Reference of the 802 protocols to the existing OSI layers The services as well as protocols in IEEE 802 maps the lower two layers of the OSI networking reference model i.e. Data Link layer and Physical layer. IEEE 802 splits the data link layer of OSI into two sub layers that is referred to as Logical Link Control as well as Media Access Control (Takayasu, Chiesa and Minervini, 2014). Conclusion The proposal gives a clear insight to the various networking methodologies in order to choose and implement the appropriate network architecture that meets the network implementation requirements. The basic network components are discussed along with their individual functionalities. The connection materials and network components apply to the organisations networking architecture. The chosen architecture and topology for the network are explained in detail in terms of how it will be beneficial to the organizations business. The performance related issues are measured in terms of meeting the requirements and considering improvement in business. Furthermore, comparison between peer to peer and client server architecture and detail working of the various network elements are provided. Reference List Ahmad, H., Zulkifli, A., Kiat, Y. and Harun, S. (2014). 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